In writing arguments, the pure logical structure of argument doesn't work.  As is shown in the symbolic rendering of logical argument, "If all ps are qs and if r is a p, then r is a q" (87),  logic seems pretty straight forward  .In writing, however, arguments need to be based on the beliefs, values and assumptions of your audience, your readers.  The assumption is often unstated.  As we discovered in week 1, the writer presents his or her argument in a manner in which he believes the audience shares the same values as he.

A successful arguer bases a claim and support on the beliefs, values, and assumptions of the audience.  Aristotle calls this an "enthymeme."  An enthymeme is, "an incomplete logical structure that depends, for its completeness, on one or more unstated assumptions (values, beliefs, principles) that serve as the starting point of the argument" (88). 

1.  Claims are supported with reasons.  You can usually state a reason as a because clause attached to the claim.

2.  A because clause attached to a claim is an incomplete logical structure call and enthymeme.    To create a complete logical structure from an enthymeme, the unstated assumption (or assumptions) must be articulated.

3.  To serve as an effective starting point for the argument, this unstated assumption should be a belief, value, or principle that the audience grants (89).

 Consider a couple of examples from the "For Class Discussion" section p. 90.  The first enthymemic argument says, "We shouldn't elect Joe as committee chair because he is too bossy."  The claim in this example is that we should not let Joe be chairman.  The reason is because he is too bossy.  The assumption is that committee chairmen should not be bossy.  The insinuation is that bossy is bad.  Look at the other questions is this section and see whether or not you can find the unstated assumption.  Remember, the assumption will generally contend that something is "good" or "bad" within the claim.  

Philosopher Stephen Toulmin created a system for arguing that is widely followed in written arguments.  Look at pages 89-97 for a clear example of how to apply the system.  Each argument should have a claim, a stated reason, grounds, a warrant (same as an assumption), backing, conditions of rebuttal, and a qualifier.  For example, in the section on "For Class Discussion" on p. 97, a breakdown of the Toulmin model is presented for the enthymeme of women in combat units.  You can see what the author wants the audience to believe, what assumptions are shared, and how the author supports his claim.  All arguments should follow this model.

Chapter 6 -- "Using Evidence Effectively"

Nothing is as important to your argument than the evidence that you provide to support it.  There are many types of evidence suitable for arguments including personal experience, observations, interviews, surveys, library research, and statistics.  The most valuable type of evidence for student papers in college is library research.  Outside sources provide logical support for most claims.  To incorporate evidence from reading, keep the STAR criteria in mind (p. 110):

Sufficiency:  Is there enough evidence?

Typicality:  Are the chosen data representative and typical?

Accuracy:  Are the data accurate and up-to-date?

Relevance:  Are the data relevant to the claim?

You can learn how evidence persuades by looking at the rhetorical context.  First, think about kinds of evidence:

Personal Experience

Observations or Field Research

Library or Internet Research

Testimony

Statistical Data

Reasoned Sequence of Ideas

Then, consider the writer's "angle of vision."  "A writer's angle of vision, like a lens or filter, helps determine what stands out for that writer in a field of data -- that is, what data are important or trivial, significant or irrelevant, worth focusing on or worth ignoring" (116).  

Using the evidence and the angle of vision, a writer will "frame" the evidence to best present his point.  There are several strategies for framing evidence on pp. 118-121.

Chapter 7 "Moving Your Audience: Audience-Based Reasons, Ethos, Pathos, and Karios"

Remember that appealing to the logic of your audience is not enough to be convincing and persuasive.  In order to have an successful argument, you must appeal to the logic and emotions of your audience.  Always construct your claim to align with the beliefs, values, and assumptions of your audience.  You can restructure your claim to fit this purpose.  Look at the examples on p. 130.   Keep this in mind for your own papers.  

"Logos, ethos, and pathos are different aspects of the same whole, different lenses for intensifying or softening the light beam you project onto the screen. Every choice you make as a writer affects in some way each of the three appeals" (131).  Appealing to the logic and emotions of your audience creates a better argument.

To create an effective ethos:

Be knowledgeable about your issue;

Be fair;

Build a bridge to your audience (131).

To create pathos:

Use concrete language;

Use specific examples and illustrations;

Use narratives (132).

Karios refers to an argument's timing and appropriateness for the occasion.  You can measure karios by sensing the opportune time through psychological attentiveness to situation and meaning.  See the examples on p. 138-139.

1. one sided

2. multi-sided

3. dialogic

An audience that agrees with your position might be easily persuaded by a one-sided argument.  Alternately, an audience that is not convinced either way, should be presented with all facets of an argument.  The dialogic argument considers the audience in a dialog in which the writer himself is uncertain about his position. 

There are several ways to appeal to the beliefs of your audience.  Pay careful attention to writing for a supportive audience, an neutral audience or a resistant audience detailed in the text.

Your writing assignment for this week will be based on the information in this chapter.  The assignment for essay #2 is PART ONE on p. 160.  You do not need to complete PART TWO.

Essay #2

Read the assignment on page 160.  Use the information in chapters 7 and 8 to write an argumentative essay on a topic that will have a resistant audience.  This essay should be supported by evidence from outside sources.  Use chapter 16 for information on how to use outside sources.  This paper is due on Thursday, June 5, midnight

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